Discuss one or more theories of Moral Understanding and evaluate its conclusions

The term morality, according to Shaffer (1993) means â€Å"a set of principles or ideals that help the individual to distinguish right from wrong and to act on this distinction. Morality is important to society, as it would not function effectively unless there is some agreement of what is right and wrong. There are many underlying processes and environmental factors, which limit or promote social, cognitive and moral development in children. In modern society, television could be considered to be one of the major influences on a child’s moral development. There are three approaches to moral development; the cognitive approach, the psychodynamic approach and the social learning theory. The Cognitive-Developmental approach of Piaget and Kohlberg studies how children become more able to reason morally and make moral judgements, whereas the Freud’s psychodynamic approach is more concerned with the development of the conscience and moral feelings such as guilt and anxiety. The social learning theory of Bandura and Mischel investigates the development of moral behaviour and how role models in the family, society and the media, influence it. The theory I am going to discuss is Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Approach. His theory of moral development is concerned with how the child’s moral knowledge and understanding change with age. Piaget saw morality as any system of rules, which governs interaction between people. The methods of investigation he used to develop his theories were, he looked at the way children imposed rules in their games. He used games to study the development of children’s moral development as he thought that by studying rules in the context of a game, he could study the child’s spontaneous though directly. He also, assessed changes in the child’s moral judgements by telling hypothetical stories about children who lied, stole or broke something. When using hypothetical stories, Piaget was generally more interested in the reasons why the children give the answers they did and not particularly the answers. Piaget identifies stages of moral development just as he identified stages with cognitive development. His theories of the way children think and their moral reasoning goes through a series of stages, as they are adapting to the world, these are also known as the processes of accommodation and assimilation. He believed that as children’s reasoning about the world changes when they grow older and gain more experience, so does their reasoning about morality. Their ability to think about the world in more complex ways is what causes them to move on from one stage to the next. This is known as cognitive development. Piaget stated that infants don’t understand much about morality until they are about three or four years of age. Their development divides into two main stages after infancy. His stages of moral development are: Pre Moral Stage (up to three or four years) Children don’t understand about rules, and so they don’t make moral judgements Stage of Heteronomous Morality (aged three – six years) Children at this stage think rules are absolute and unchangeable, and the goodness and badness of an action is judged largely on the basis of its consequences rather than by taking intent into account. Stage of Autonomous Morality (from around six or seven) Children at this stage now see rules as more changeable and intentions are taken into account. Children also start to believe that it is possible to break rules and get away with it, whereas earlier they tended to think they will always be found out and possibly punished. Researchers from Europe and America have tested some of Piaget’s theories and have concluded that distinct stages of development do seem to exist however, other research found that children do not see all rules as being equally important as Piaget thought they did. Heteronomous Morality, also known as moral realism, means when the child is subject to another’s laws or rules. Children think that rules must be obeyed no matter what the circumstances. A child at this stage will think that rules are only made by authority figures, such as, parents and teachers. Two other features that are displayed in moral reasoning at this stage are, first they expect bad behaviour to be punished in some way, they believe that the punishment should be expiatory – the wrongdoer must make amends for the crime by paying with some kind of suffering. They have the view that the amount of punishment should match the badness of the behaviour. Secondly, if the bad behaviour goes undetected then the child believes in immanent justice – where any misfortune occurring after the bad behaviour can be seen as a punishment. For example, if a child tells a lie and gets away with it, then later trips and falls, the younger child could consider this as a punis hment. In general, they believe punishment should be fair and that wrongdoing will always be punished in some way. Autonomous Morality, which means when the child is subject to one’s own laws and rules. It involves moral relativism whereby the child comes to realise that rules evolve from social relationships. Due to the child ‘decentring’ and their developed ability to think more flexibly about moral issues, they have began to realise it is important to take other people’s opinions into account. At this stage a child will have developed the understanding that sometimes rules of morality can be broken in certain reasonable circumstances. They believe in reciprocal punishment, whereby the punishment should fit the crime. For example, if a child takes another child’s sweets, the first child should be deprived of their sweets or should make it up to the victim in some other way. This is known as the principle of reciprocity. Children will also have learnt at this stage that wrongdoers often avoid punishment, diminishing any belief in immanent justice. They see punishment as a method of making the offender understand the nature of the crime and that punishment is also a deterrent. The move from heteronomous morality to autonomous morality is influenced by two factors. Children around the age of seven begin to move on from the pre operational stage of an illogical and an egocentric way of thinking to more logical and flexible way of thinking, in the operational stage. Their growing awareness that other people have different views allows them to develop more mature moral reasoning. However, moral development lags at least one to two years behind cognitive development because the whole process depends on the cognitive changes occurring first. Kohlberg expanded Piaget's theory to form a theory that also explained the development of moral reasoning. While Piaget described a two-stage process of moral development, Kohlberg’s theory outlined six stages within three different levels. Kohlberg extended Piaget’s theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. A study by Colby et al (1983) criticised Piaget’s assumption that children of ten and eleven years old had reached an adult level of moral reasoning. Piaget was always focusing on what an average child was capable of achieving so he neglected the idea of great variations between the individual child’s ways of thinking. In general, Piaget’s cognitive theory has been criticised for the methods of investigation not being as precise as they could have been. Methods he used were seen as complicated, leading critics to think he under estimated younger children’s capabilities of what they could and could not do. This was because later research went on to conclude that children could actually take other motives into consideration, when they understood what motives were involved. Despite criticism, Piaget’s work is still regarded as a revolutionary step forward in the way we understand how children think. It has led to a much more realistic ways of understanding children’s moral development. Many attempts to test Piaget’s theories from researchers around the world have resulted in acceptance that some of his views and methods do appear to exist.

“Hero of Our Time” by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by Mikhail Lermontov Essay

The two novels â€Å"Hero of Our Time† written by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and â€Å"One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich† written by Mikhail Lermontov will be compared for this World Literature Assignment (Comparative Study). The main characters of these two novels will be compared and distinguished. In â€Å"Hero of Our Time† the main character is Grigory Alexandrovich Pechorin and the main character in â€Å"One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich† is Ivan Denisovich (Shukhov). The novel â€Å"Hero of Our Time† is composed of five short stories and is about the adventures of the main character Pechorin. There are three main narrators in this novel, who are, the travel writer, Pechorin and Maxim Maximych. Lermontov has used three narrators so the readers can see three different perspectives making the reader see different views of the characters in the book. The reader also learns that the five short stories are not in chronological order. This makes it some what confusing for the reader but at the same time gets the reader really interested in the book. The story is about how Pechorin is struggling in the society he is living in and also at the same time struggling with himself. We find out his true feelings and thoughts in his journal where the reader feels sympathy for him. Pechorin to other characters in the book is never honest and sometimes is not in control of his emotions and actions. The aim of the author is to show the readers if Pechorin re ally is the hero of his time or not. This is very ironic since the lack of morality suggests that he is not a traditional hero. The novel â€Å"One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich† is a description of one of Shukhov’s days in a labour camp where he has been sentenced for ten years. We learn how prison life is harsh and tough. In the labor camp it is all about surviving, comradeship (between the Prisoners) and corruption. The reader learns that the only free time Prisoners have is during their meals. The prison life has forced some people to change. An example of this is where one of the prisoners, Fetiukov, has become the type of man who would steal potatoes out of another man’s soup. The style of the novel is understated and straightforward. Solzhenitsyn has written this book very descriptively. Everything has been described accurately so the reader can imagine and visualize the surroundings. An example of this is when Shukhov is describing the mess hall: â€Å"The mess-hall seemed as usual, with clouds of vapour curling in through the door and men sitting shoulder to shoulder like seeds in a sunflower†1 This novel is written in the 3rd person form but we see through Shukhov’s eyes. We get to know him as a first person so we get a broad perspective of him and also others, how they look at Shukhov. We show respect to Shukhov since he is surviving the cold harsh conditions. â€Å"The cold stung. A murky fog wrapped itself round Shukhov and made him cough painfully† In the labour camp the authority treats the prisoners like animals where Shukhov treats them as comrades. Shukhov’s one day in the labour camp is representing the lives of millions of people who were sent to labor camps during Stalin’s regime. If we look at Pechorin’s characteristics we learn that he has the characteristics of a Byronic Hero. This can be said by looking at his behaviour, he is sulky, creates the sense of mystery, is isolated from the society and also rebels against social niceties of the time. â€Å"A Hero of Our Time† involves women. Pechorin is scared to get in love or make any kind of commitment with any women since a fortune teller once told his mother that he would die when he gets married. Pechorin thinks about this and tries to avoid it, thus he makes excuses for not making any commitments with women. The reader gets the feeling that he is irrational, although it’s clean-cut that he has an ambivalent character. Pechorin is a person who contradicts himself. He sets out to do something and at the end does the total opposite of it. This shows that he can be misleading. â€Å"I lied, but I wanted to bait him. I was born with a passion for contradiction. My whole life has been nothing but a series of dismal, unsuccessful attempts to go against heart or reason† Pechorin can be described as a womanizer since he likes to play against women’s emotions and use them so they can benefit him and fulfill his personal desires. He gets this satisfaction when he uses women, making him feel like a ‘hero’. The reader also learns that he is a character who can’t even be honest to himself. This is not always the case, for example when he writes in his journal he always tries to be honest. Pechorin is very self-analytical because he analyzes motives so we can see things from his perspective. â€Å"I’ve always hated entertaining, but now every day my house is full of guests, dining, supping, gambling.† Pechorin makes the reader also assumes that his mental break down will be from women. Now if we look at the characteristics of Shukhov, we learn that Shukhov is a prisoner of war in a labor camp. Life is very hard, just one day of his life shows so much about the living standards he is living in. Shukhov is a disciplined person and has not lost his civilized behaviour, like for example he would always take his cap off while eating even when it’s freezing. Similarly Pechorin also has pride but his pride is his self-respect and his arrogance, mostly superficial things. The low living standards have made Shukhov enjoy little things for example building a wall, smuggling a piece of hacksaw blade so he can make a knife out of it. The most important characteristic about him is that he is a very honest man especially to his comrades. He gives them respect and realizes like him he should not be here. The strong bond between his friends makes him want to live on. Comradeship is essential because without comradeship in the labor camp, surviving would be really difficult. Shukhov’s pride and dignity has been taken away from him and he only thinks of surviving this labor camp. In the labor camp his better days are when he gets extra food and has not ended up in the lock-up. He sometimes thinks positive and thinks about the future that there is still some hope. He hopes to meet his family which is waiting for him. If we compare the two characters we see that Shukhov has a much stronger bond with his comrades/friends than Pechorin has with his friends. Shukhov has to have friends in order to survive in the prison because if he doesn’t he would be even more mentally broken down. The bond of friendship makes him live on in that dreadful prison. It can also be said that Shukhov is a person who we can respect and who also shows respect to others. There is also a similarity between the two characters which is that they were/are both soldiers. This means that they have both encountered war and seen the dreadful sides of it. Another important similarity between them is that they are both shaped by society and the time that they live in. Although Shukhov is in prison and Pechorin isn’t the reader feels that Shukhov still has more freedom. This is because Shukhov is a person who won’t hurt anyone and respect everyone. In return he is also trusted and no one has ever hurt him before. The reader feels that Shukhov has inner peace and that he is a kind of freedom. On the other hand Pechorin does not have that inner peace which Shukhov has this is because he is a selfish person thinking only of his desires. Since Shukhov is in prison he has the freedom of his political ideas and these cannot be punished since he is already in prison. This again shows how Shukhov has the freedom to do this but Pechorin doesn’t. It can be concluded that Shukhov has a stronger character than Pechorin. This is because Shukhov is in general a pleasant person who respects everyone. He is a civilized man and always thinks how he could survive the rest of the years so he can go back to his family. Pechorin is quite opposite to Shukhov, he has a weak character. This is because he is not trustworthy even at times not to himself because he contradicts him self a lot. It can be felt that Shukhov is the greater hero of his time since he makes the reader sympathise for him without creating sympathy. But Pechorin wants the readers to sympathise for him by explaining his feelings, emotions and actions all the time. Bibliography Books: 1) Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (2000): One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, Penguin Classics; England 2) Mikhail Lermontov (2001): A Hero of Our Time, Penguin Classics; England 1 â€Å"One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich†, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Penguin Classics Edition (2000), England, page 118 2 â€Å"One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich†, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Penguin Classics Edition (2000), England, page 23 3 â€Å"A Hero of Our Time†, Mikhail Lermontov, Penguin Classics (2001), England, page 77 4 â€Å"A Hero of Our Time†, Mikhail Lermontov, Penguin Classics (2001), England, page 84

Describe Trs riches heures du Duc de Berry in detail and state why you Essay

Describe Trs riches heures du Duc de Berry in detail and state why you chose it as well as its relevance to the times and to the themes of the cantebury tales - Essay Example At the central point where all the four fields meet, there is a building that looks like a small lighthouse, bordering two of the fields that have been fenced off with a wall. Two of the fields, i.e., one where the hay is being harvested and tied into bundles and the other which is bare, are surrounded by these walls. In the case of the former, there is an archway for entry into the field and a small watch tower at one end. In the latter field, there is a small house with a roof covered with orange/red tiles, which appears to be a watchman or overseer’s home. Adjoining the palace and bordering the field where hay is being harvested, there is a long stretch of rolling meadow covered with green grass, covered with several cows. A rider on a horse, aided by a dog, is rounding up these cows and obviously leading them on the place where they will be housed for the night. These green fields arise in sharp contrast to the fields in various stages of harvesting, because the four field s described earlier are brown. The palace present near the fields is notable; it is surrounded by a high, stone wall. There is a large stretch of plain ground just outside the wall, which could perhaps have been used for jousting purposes. There is a narrow stretch of green lawn on the outskirts of the wall surrounding the harvested field with the tree, leading on into the palace grounds through a gap in the wall. The outer wall continues down into a set of stone edifices which appear to have served perhaps as viewing posts, or seating areas where jousting and sword fighting events could have been witnessed by the hoi polloi. Behind the wall, the palace stretches out over a vast distance in the background. Towards the right side, a large tower is visible, with the edifice of a large bird perched on top of it, wings outstretched. At a lower level, patches of blue indicate the seating

Design Thinking Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Design Thinking - Research Paper Example Typically, design thinking happens to be a great method for practical and creative resolutions to problems as well as for creating solutions. This mostly happens in an effort to improve the future with regard to the particular product or service (Rowe, 1987). It is an aspect of a kind of thinking focusing specifically on a solution to a particular problem. In this regard, a design thinker is found to be considering the prevailing and future conditions as well as the parameters of the particular problem. In such a case, alternative solutions are usually explored simultaneously (Rowe, 1987). This form of thinking mostly occurs within the built or the artificial environment, usually as artifact (Cross, 1982). Design thinking is based on various thinking theories such as dualism, relativism, subjective knowledge, procedural, knowledge, observation and reflection, and concrete experience among other. The dual process theory for instance gives an account of the possibility of an action occurring in two distinct ways. The critical thinker can make use of this theory to perceive the course of an action as leading to two possible and different outcomes. These outcomes may include an adverse result and good results concurrently or two good outcomes could result. An instance is a case the designing and production of a product would contribute to the desired solution, but at the same time lead to adverse issues like environmental pollution. A combination of more than one thinking theories, usually occurs during design thinking (Paivio, 2001). A standard design thinking process (Fig.1)is often incorporated to ensure success The steps illustrated in figure 1 may however differ significantly as explained further in the paper. The illustration only shows the basic steps that should be incorporated in the course of design thinking process. The application of Design

System analysis Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

System analysis - Article Example From the decisions, this article demonstrates the response of an organization to feedback generated from the information. The article uses a hierarchical structure in illustration of information flow, with an inclusion of information status changes at different levels. The second aspect of the structure is a topic-by-topic discussion, with illustrative diagrams, showing all steps of information development. These elements are relevant for the development of a system analyst. The rationale of this resource is that it can develop me into a competent system analyst and designer. This is because it incorporates aspects of organizational behavior into the processes of system analysis and design. It generates and reflects relevant decision information applicable in the change management systems and processes in organizations (French, 2011). The choice of this resource considered a holistic approach of organization behavior in line with the components of system analyst’s roles and scope of actions. The strengths of this resource are threefold. As a system analyst, I can develop competence by applicability it to many organizations, involving it in a practical procedures and use its published information as authoritative reference. The resource has practical demonstration of the processes, which a system analyst can use in relation to the Mary’s Seven Steps. The seven steps are easy for a system analyst to follow since the sequence is clear from one practical step to the next. As a System Analyst, the resource is reliable as a form publication of John Wiley and Sons Publishers in New York City. This makes it a more credible and dependable resource than unpublished materials. While using this article, one of the challenges likely for a system analyst and designer is that it does not have the latest information. It lacks timely information, hence it inspires the system analyst to seek the most relevant information with publication year being not later

Interpretation of Statistical Tables and Testing Hypotheses Statistics Project

Interpretation of Statistical Tables and Testing Hypotheses - Statistics Project Example Therefore, there appears a difference in grade for unmotivated, motivated, and highly motivated diploma students that are there is difference in grade based on participation. The average grade for unmotivated scholarship students (23 to 32 years old) was about 78.89 (SD = 7.59), for motivated scholarship students was about 71.17 (SD = 6.05), and for highly motivated  scholarship students was about 76.80 (SD = 7.12). Therefore, there appears that unmotivated and highly motivated scholarship students grade is higher as compared to motivated scholarship students. The average grade for unmotivated government students (33 and above) was about 62.67 (SD = 4.32), for motivated government students was about 62.56 (SD = 5.03), and for highly motivated  government students was about 63.20 (SD = 9.63). The average grade for  diploma students was about 87.85 (SD = 5.66), for  scholarship students was about 76.05 (SD = 7.49), and for  government students was about 62.75 (SD = 5.93). Therefore, there appears difference in grade among three age groups of students. The average grade for unmotivated students was about 79.00 (SD = 13.09), for motivated students was about 72.68 (SD = 11.50), and for highly motivated  students was about 74.75 (SD = 11.00). Therefore, there appears difference in grade among three motivation (participation) groups of students. There was a significant main effect of age group on student grade, F(2, 4.06) = 39.92, p =.002, ÃŽ ·2 = 0.952. In other words, there is difference in student grade for different age groups. The result indicates a very strong effect of 0.952 as measured by ÃŽ ·2. There was nonsignificant main effect of participation (motivation) on student grade, F(2, 4.02) = 1.77, p =.281, ÃŽ ·2 = 0.468. In other words, there is statistically no difference in student grade for different participations

Comparing two of the six IPCC scenarios Assignment

Comparing two of the six IPCC scenarios - Assignment Example With this regards it evident that the number one energy type, oil is declining at a faster rate. For example, The United States oil reserves have been declining since the year 1971. The demand for oil in most of the countries is increasing and most of the oil producing countries has already depleted their oil fields. Gas which is also produced in similar circumstance as oil is also limited. By the year 2100, most of the natural gas should have been depleted (Chefruka, 2009). Nuclear energy seems to one of the energy types that will not be fully depleted by 2100. The more nuclear power plant will be formed the more power people will be able to obtain. Since most of the energy forms would have been depleted by 2100, renewable energy will become the most used for of energy. By 2100, most of the population will be forced to use the renewable forms of energy like solar panels and wind power (Nakicenovic, 2001). The decline of human population by 2100 can be closely associated with the reduction of energy. It is correct to assume that the decline in the world energy supply will have profound effect on the population. If we carefully analyze this, we will find out that human being requires a significant amount on energy to sustain their quality of life. So, if this energy supply decline per capita, the quality of life will be affected. Based on the theory of demand and supply, when the energy sources become scarce, there price of oil will go high. The price of this commodity will force the populace to redirect money for other expenses to obtain this precious commodity. Their consumption will hit rock bottom and this will be disastrous. Statistics shows that over 5 billion out of 7 billion occupants live in countries where the energy per capita is under 1.5 toe per year (Nakicenovic, 2001). As the energy reserves continue to decline, these counties stand a high

Marketing in the For and Not For Profit Sectors Essay

Marketing in the For and Not For Profit Sectors - Essay Example The essay "Marketing in the For and Not For Profit Sectors" talks about the marketing strategies of both for profit and not for profit organizations have been discussed extensively. All current theories have been examined and explained with relevant examples. In the case of for profit companies, the buyer behavior was discussed.With the companies who aim to make a profit the term marketing associates itself to advertising and sales promotions and is more misunderstood than understood. Marketing is much more than that. The need to project the qualities and benefits of a product, the comparison of one product with the competition and the value for money concept are all various angle of the one single objective of making a consumer or buyer aware of its existence and to convince him to buy it. Since marketing is the only tool available for promotion of the idea, service or product, various theories and methods have been adopted in different scenarios for these endeavors.There are many a pproaches to addressing such an understanding of business customers or consumers, but one proposed by Dibb and Simkin has been widely adopted across consumer, business and service markets. Their Buying Proforma forces managers to put the customer first and identifies exactly what the company must provide or offer. It also reveals the influences the company, in turn, must strive to influence and offers a framework against which to compare competitors’ moves and marketing programs.

Testicular torsion in neonates Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Testicular torsion in neonates - Essay Example However, intravaginal torsion testis has also been reported in neonates (Burge). Most of the cases of  torsion testis detected in the new born period are believed to occur inutero (2). Torsion testis  occurs due to loose attachments of the tunica to the scrotal wall (4). It is associated with high birth weight (5). Most of the times, it is unilateral and may be associated with undescended testis. Baby of Gracy Thomas was noticed to have swelling and redness at the right half of the scrotum, 12 hours after birth. The baby was born full term by normal delivery. The birth weight was 3.5 kg. Antenatal scans were normal. On examination, there was redness and swelling over the right testis. No ecchymoses were noted on the skin of the scrotum. The testis was tender, firm and hard to feel. The opposite testis appeared normal. The vital signs were stable and other systems examination was normal. A diagnosis of torsion of the right testes was made and an emergency Doppler ultrasound arranged. Doppler study revealed gross swelling of the testis along with heterogeneous echogenicity. Subtunica fluid was noted and Doppler was absent. This confirmed the diagnosis of torsion testis. The baby was taken in for surgery immediately. On exploration during surgery, there was no evidence of necrosis of the affected testis. Incision of the right testis caused bleeding suggesting the viability of the testis. Detorsion of the right testes was done following which it was fixed to the scrotal wall. Also, orchidopexy of the opposite testis was also undertaken. Intra-operative Doppler study revealed return of blood supply to the testes, thus proving the success of detorsion. Post-sugery, the baby was stable. He was discharged after 2 days and asked to return after a week for follow up. On follow up, examination of the testes were normal. Neonatal testicular torsion can be divided

Communtiy service assignement Essay Example for Free

Communtiy service assignement Essay In your own words, answer the following questions. 1. What does the term ‘risk of significant harm’ mean? Answer q1. If the circumstances that are causing concerns for the safety welfare and wellbeing are present to significant extent. 2. What are the types of child abuse? Answer for q2. 1.physical 2.sexual 3.neglect 4.phychological 3. Identify three possible indicators or signs for each type of child abuse/neglect. Answers q3 1 physical bruising behaviour problems depression anxiety 2 sexual bed wetting ,nightmares , scared of people touching them 3 neglect can be unbathed dirty, little to no food ,too big or small clothing thats dirty 4. What does the term ‘mandatory reporter’ mean? Answer q4 a mandatory reporter is a person that delivers health care education or children services to a child/ren under 16 and authorise by the department community services and required to make reports 5. Why is it important to adopt an ‘interagency approach’? Answer q5 1,promoting a partnership approach to child protection Task 2 Read the case studies below and answer the questions that follow. Jamele You are a worker in a family support agency. Your service offers facilitated playgroups each week to young and isolated mothers. Jamelle is a 1year old and attends each week with her mother. Jamelle is a very timid and does not interact with other children during play time. On a few occasions Jamelle has arrived with several large bruises which Jamelle’s mother has explained as accidents that had occurred whilst Jamelle was attempting to walk by  herself. Jamelle often arrives smelling strongly of stale urine and appearing dirty and unwashed. When they arrived today for the playgroup Jamelle had bloodshot eyes and was very drowsy. Jamelle’s mother reported that Jamelle had not slept well that night and would probably need a lot of sleep today. During the session Jamelle began to vomit. 1. What are the indicators of risk? Answer q1. 1.neglect 2.abuse 3.suspected risk of significant harm 2. How you would respond to this situation? Answer q2 1.document and report to supervisor 2.investigate or possible involvement of police and DOCS 3.call ambulance to protect the health and safety of the child 3. How would you prepare to make a report? Answer q3 1. time and date sign all documented 2.follow all policy and procedures in your work place 3.details of child ,dob name , address phone number, parent or carer if child has disability any back ground if known 4.document what the mother has stated 4. Who would you notify and when? Answer q4 1.immediately discuss situation with your supervisor after you suspect the abuse to the child 5. What actions/work practices you would take as a follow up from the report. Answer q5 1.offer support and help for family 2.services for family eg counselling parental courses 3.comply with your work place policy and procedures Taj You are case worker in a local service that supports families where one of the parents has a mental illness. Your service offers a range of support services, one of which is a weekly support group for children aimed at  reducing isolation and developing coping skills for dealing with a parent with mental illness. Taj is a 10 year old boy who attends the service weekly. Taj is popular with both the staff and his peers and likes to participate in most activities. After the last school holidays, Taj returned to the service a changed child, he has become aggressive and picks fights with his peers. He has also become aggressive towards the other male worker and is isolating himself. Taj has started wearing jumpers and long pants, even on warmer days and refuses to remove any clothing when he shows clear signs of being overheated. During an activity, Taj’s jumper became caught on the table and pulled up revealing a mass of red welts and recent burn scarring on his stomach and back area. Over the last few weeks Taj has drawn some explicit sexual pictures during art activities and has been using very sexualised language. 1. What are the indicators of risk? Answers q1 Aggressive behaviour, picks fights, red welts, bur ns 1.physical 2.sexual 3.neglect 2. How you would respond to this situation? Answer q2 1.ask taj whats happening while on school holidays also contact the family 2. report and document speak to principal and report to your supervisor 3.make a child proctection report to DOCS and police 3. How would you prepare to make a report? Answer q3 names and addresses of the child and his parents or responsible caregiver(s) childs age and gender nature and extent of injury, maltreatment or neglect   approximate date and time the injury, maltreatment or neglect occurred the circumstances in which the injuries, became known to case worker previous injury, abuse/ neglect of the child or siblings  name of the person suspected to have caused the injury, sexual abuse/ neglect any action taken to treat or help the child and sign   any other information the caseworker believes would be helpful What actions/work practices you would take as a follow up from the report. 1 your repsonsibilty regarding the safety welfare or wellbeing of the child does not cease once report has been made docs it is still your responsibilty to use professional resources to provide support appropriate to your role and identify and respond to any concerns for the young childs welfare Karli Karli is a 16 year old resident in a youth refuge. She is quite precocious and outgoing with all the residents. After the first few days, you noticed that she was flirting with one of the male youth workers. This is not an unusual situation and generally does not create major issues. Expectations that staff not engage in any relationship other than a professional helping relationship are clearly outlined in the agency code of conduct, staff recruitment and ongoing professional development and training. You have noticed over the last few weeks that the worker Jackson appears to be flirting back. You have noticed that there is a lot of incidental touching between them and while you have seen no touching that is clearly inappropriate you can â€Å"feel† a lot of sexual energy between them when they are interacting. You have tried to raise it in discussion but Jackson is dismissive and will not engage on the topic. 1. How you would respond to this situation? Answer q1 1.follow your work place policy and procedures 2.report incidents of your observation to your supervisor 3.discuss your concerns with jackson and karli 2. What ethical issues may arise when responding to these situations? Answer q2 1.breaching the client and workers code of ethics 2.client history and vulnerability and mental status 3.disscussion of sexual or romatic relationship have occurred 4.conflict of interest 5.mandatory and disciplinary action for the case worker Task 3 Read the scenario below and answer the questions that follow. Joseph Personal Information about Joseph Date of Birth: 31/10/04 Full Name: Joseph Timothy Drake Address: 13 Short St, Parker Languages spoken: Chinese and English Nationality: Chinese Other children: Only child Mother: Lis’s (09) 7476 9435 Partner: Jake (no number provided) You are a community worker in a multicultural resource centre. Your service runs a range of programs to support and assist people from culturally diverse backgrounds. Many of your clients have limited social resources and one of the programs that is offered is a women’s friendship group which aims to reduce the isolation of women. Lis attends the friendship group each week. Lis lives with her son, Joseph who is 5 years old. She has had a series of failed relationships and is currently seeing Jake who you have never met. Lis has engaged you in a number of conversations over several weeks, where she often breaks down and discloses details about fights she has had with her partner. Last week, Lis recounted the events of the previous weekend, when she forgot to leave the key under the door mat and so her boyfriend broke the front door and came in yelling at Lis. Joseph was still up with her at this time, and Lis continued to say that she was worried Joseph had seen her get hit several times by Jake. Lis appears increasingly concerned that he might do something to Joseph as he keeps threatening her and arriving late at night after drinking. This week Lis turns up to the group with Joseph, although children are not part of the group. Lis mentions she is very upset as Jake had come home late again and there had been some trouble. During the group you notice that Joseph is aggressive with Lis and does not engage with other people. At one point Joseph wets his pants and you organise for a change of clothes. While Lis is changing Joseph you notice a large impact bruise on his back. When you approach Joseph lashes out. 1. Where would you find information on how your service responds to Child Protection issues? Answer q1 1. document and report to supervisor the worries and fears mother has for herself and joseph 2.ask mother consent to fill out incident report 3.mandatory reporting guide 4.multicultural services,internet/google 5.child protection helpline 2. List the legislative acts that govern Child Protection Services in your state/territory. Answer q2 1.family law act 1975 2.law reform act 1995 3.family law amended act 2006 4.national quality standards 5.onbudsman amendment act 1998 6.children and young person (care and protection) act 1998 7.children legislation amendment act 2009

The Hardy Weinberg Theorem In Genetics Biology Essay

The Hardy Weinberg Theorem In Genetics Biology Essay Introduction The Hardy Weinberg Theorem is a mathematical formula that allows allele and genotype frequencies in a population of diploid or polypoid individuals to be interrelated, where the frequency of one allele is represented as p, and the frequency of the other is represented as q (the sum of which = 1.0). The sum of the different genotype frequencies (homozygotes and heterozygotes) also equates to 1.0. Where p and q are the frequencies of the alleles for a particular gene in a population, the genotype frequency can be expressed as: p ² + 2pq + q ² = 1 Where p ² = frequency of organisms that are homozygous for the first allele q ² = frequency of organisms that are homozygous for the second allele 2pq = frequency of heterozygous organisms The Hardy Weinberg equilibrium stays constant as long as there is random mating, no migration, no natural selection, no mutation and no genetic drift (N=infinite), (Fig. 1). N = infinite Figure 1. A graph to show the Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium. Put together using data from: Lori Lawsons lecture 15, Neutral Evolution and Genetic Drift, 2010 Therefore the population does not evolve. If an allele or genotype frequency is seen to change from one generation to the next then it is clear that one or more of the micro-evolutionary forces (mutation, migration etc) are acting on those traits in the population. Without mutation there are no new alleles or genes and so no evolution. Mutation must occur in the germ line to be significant in evolutionary terms. J. B. S. Haldane (1892-1964) stated that the number of germ cell divisions per generation is higher in males; therefore the mutation rate will be higher in males. Gene flow (also called migration) brings new genotypes into populations and is critical for the long term survival of a population, especially if it is a small population. For migration to be Catherine Carrick 200884273 effective in respect to evolution there must be successful reproduction among migrating populations. It is the movement of alleles between populations, not individuals. Wrights Island model of migration (Fig. 2) shows that migration homogenizes populations (where they consist of similar elements uniform throughout). Genetic drift is another form of micro-evolution and leads to random changes in allele frequencies. It is fundamentally a result of finite population size and has the most rapid and dramatic effect on small populations who show reduced variability. Drift increases divergence between populations so genetic variation must be replenished. Mutation replenishes variation and at equilibrium there is a balance between the rate of mutation and the rate of drift. Figure 2.Wrights island model. Put together using data from: Lori Lawsons lecture 15, Neutral Evolution and Genetic Drift, 2010 Charles Darwin (1859) defined natural selection (another micro-evolutionary force) with his four postulates; 1) individuals within populations are variable, 2) there is heritability (variation among individuals partly passed on from parents), 3) that in every generation there are some individuals that are fitter (survival/reproductive success) than others and 4) fitness is not random. Natural selection is the equivalent of differential reproduction as a result of an organisms interaction with the environment and the populations inherent variation. It acts on heritable (not acquired) characteristics at an individual level and not for the good of the species. However, the consequences occur in populations. This is demonstrated by melanism in the peppered moth (Biston betularia). The causes of melanism in the peppered moth have been well studied since the 1950s and show natural selection at work. Camouflage is key to predator avoidance in the peppered moth and there are two distinct mor phs. One being white with black or brown specks (typica) and the other predominantly black (carbonaria). The former is well camouflaged on trees with lichen on their bark and the later; better suited to dark or blackened bark. During the industrial revolution in the 19th century, an increase of soot and industrial pollution coincided with the appearance of the carbonaria form. Original studies on the relation between B. betularias crypsis and lichens failed to consider two important details; firstly, that the natural resting place of the moths is high in the canopy during the day and not on the trunk as previously thought, and secondly, human vision was used to simulate a birds view of the moths originally, but avian species are sensitive to different wavelengths of light and so will have a different view of the moths and their respective camouflage to that of humans. Taking this into consideration, Majerus, Brunton and Stalker (2000) devised a more systematic experiment to examine the UV characteristics of Catherine Carrick 200884273 both moth morphs and some of the lichens they rested on as demonstrated by the images in Fig. 3. Figure 3. The typica and carbonaria forms of the peppered moth as they appear in normal visible light (a), and as they appear under UV light (b). Image taken from MAJERUS, BRUNTON STALKER, 2000 It was their conclusion that moth colour provides sufficient camouflage both in human-visible and UV- spectra to crutose lichens (as appose to different lichen flora originally hypothesised to be rested upon by black and peppered morphs). Ultimately, strong selection pressures gave way to relatively rapid the evolution of the carbonaria form in industrialised areas due to the advantages of its dark colour (predator avoidance etc). Methods and Results Assignment 1: Testing the Hardy-Weinberg Principle: Method Using PopGenLab, we are able to set up hypothetical experiments to observe the factors that influence the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium in a population. We can do this by manipulating different input parameters (genotype frequency, tree type, number of stands (groups of trees), stand size (number of trees within a group), migration rate, mating pattern and disaster frequency). For this assignment the input parameters are as follows: Number of stands = 1 All other input parameters are left at default values (equal allele frequencies; genotype frequencies of 50% brown, 25% white, 25% black; equal proportions of each tree type; stand size of 4000; no migration; random mating; disaster frequency set at Never. Results Q 1.1) When looking at the allele and genotype frequencies, there is a change in both over time. All populations behave differently to one another. This is because the only active evolutionary force is genetic drift. Fig. 4 shows that allele frequencies change Catherine Carrick 200884273 over time due to genetic drift, but as all the conditions of the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium are fixed the allele frequencies must equal 1 and so the variation in allele frequency of A becomes the negative of the frequency of a. (Fig. 4). Figure 4. Showing allele frequencies changing over time due to genetic drift. Blue line = Allele A, Red line = Allele a, Green line = average over all stands for allele A Q 1.2) When the initial allele frequencies are changed to A=80% (p), a = 20% (q) (p ² = 0.8 x 0.8 = 0.64); AA = 64% (equilibrium reached after one generation) (Fig 6). If all the Hardy Weinberg conditions are all fixed, the equilibrium will always be reduced in the next generation (Fig.5 and 6). Fig. 5. shows the initial genotype frequency compared with Fig. 6. which shows the genotype frequency after one generation. The actual genotype frequencies (worked out with average stand number) match the Hardy Weinberg predictions as they stay within 1% of the previous generations genotype frequency, across every generation thereafter. However, the percentage may change by 1% due to genetic drift. Figure 5. Display of the initial genotype frequency. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Figure 6. Shows the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium is reached after one generation where 0.64=64% homozygous AA individuals. Assignment 2: Genetic Drift Method Q 2.1) Firstly we ran an experiment with default values for all the Hardy Weinberg conditions and 100 populations. We then ran a series of experiments with 100 populations and default parameters for all conditions except tree stand size which was systematically reduced for each experiment. We recorded the effects on allele and genotype frequency (below). Fig. 7 shows that stand size 10 produced the largest fluctuations of allele frequencies, and displayed the most cases of allele fixing. Results Stand size = 4000 (carrying capacity) Allele frequency- the average remains constant for A and a Genotype frequency stays relatively constant throughout. Stand size = 2000 Allele frequency the average show slight variation Genotype frequency stays relatively constant. Stand size = 1000 Allele frequency the average starts to diverge more with each generation from F45 (generation 45) onwards showing a lot more variation than in larger stand sizes Genotype frequency the average frequency stays constant although there is some variation compared with larger stand sizes Catherine Carrick 200884273 Stand size = 500 Allele frequency The average shows variation in the later generations Genotype frequency the average stays relatively constant but still with more variation than in any other larger stand thus far Stand size = 250 Allele frequency the average shows some variation in the mid-generations, but this returns to a 50:50 frequency in the later generations Genotype frequency on average, the frequency of both white and black variations of moth increases and shows a large variation between stands. Heterozygosity the brown variation decreases by 9% over 100 generations Stand size = 100 Allele frequency the average shows more variation, but to the point where in some stands alleles within individual populations become fixed Genotype frequency the frequency of homozygotes increases. In some stands the homozygosity (black) becomes fixed, phasing out the other tow variations (white and brown) Heterozygosity drops by 22% Stand size = 50 Allele frequency frequencies become fixed for a single allele quickly (by F23) Genotype frequency Many stands become fixed for one variation within a few generations Heterozygosity drops by 33% after 100 generations Stand size = 10 Allele frequency becomes fixed within a population after two generations, and continues to become fixed in other populations. By F77, all are fixed Genotype frequency every single genotype becomes homozygous or extinct Heterozygosity by F77 all heterozygosity is lost and by F100 there are only homozygous populations, with the other (70%) becoming extinct There are many variations in allele and genotype frequency between different stands because as the stand number decreases, the chance of genetic drift increases. Figure 7 shows that at stand size 10, heterozygosity was lost completely by F77. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Figure 7. (stand size 10): this produced the largest fluctuations of allele frequencies, and displayed the most cases of allele fixing. (Blue = A, Red = a, Green = average) Q 2.2) As the stand size decreased, so did the heterozygosity. Populations began fixation in stand size 100 to stand size 50. As the stand size decreased, the number of fixed alleles increased. When the carrying capacity became too small, there was not enough variation to prevent fixation. Random mating account for the variation between fixed and non-fixed alleles in stand size 100 and stand size 50. Fig. 8. shows that with a stand size of 10, heterozygosity diminished completely by F77. Therefore, the smaller the population, the quicker heterozygosity is lost. Figure 8. Question 2:2 (stand size 10): This shows the heterozygosity diminished completely by F77. The green line (average) tends to diminishing heterozygosity. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Figure 9. Question 2:3 (stand size 10): Shows population of stand number 15 and how it fluctuates around the average value, it also shows that when the population dwindled to a certain point, it wasnt able to re-establish the numbers enough to prevent extinction. Q 2.3) Yes populations from stand size 10 became extinct (70% of them) therefore, as the carrying capacity decreases, the risk of extinction increases. There is variation within generations due to factors like predation or whether the offspring are male biased for example. There may be a lower population size in the next generation depending on mating strategies (random mating) and occasionally, the parameters reach a point of no return and the population can not recover and so becomes extinct. Others avoid extinction because the experiment is random. Fig. 9. (where stand size = 10) shows population of stand number 15 and how it fluctuates around the average value, it also shows that when the population dwindled to a certain point, it wasnt able to re-establish the numbers enough to prevent extinction. Assignment 3: The Influence of Mating Patterns on Population Genetics Method In this experiment we set all default parameters except for the number of tree stands which was set to 100. The first experiment was carried out with random mating, and the subsequent experiments with non-random mating. We then varied the population size as before, this time to compare the effects of assertive mating with genetic drift. Results Q 3.1) The effects of 25% assortative mating: Genotype frequency 25% assortative mating causes an increase in homozygotes, and heterozygosity is lost by F80 Allele frequency (produces a sigmoidal shaped graph). All become fixed for a single allele. Heterozygosity the average heterozygosity is lost at F80 Catherine Carrick 200884273 50% assortative mating: Genotype frequency all homozygotes with an almost 1:1 ratio aa being slightly more dominant Allele frequency (sigmoidal graph) all fixed by F50 Heterozygosity lost by F33 (average heterozygosity) 100% assortative mating Genotype frequency quickly becomes homozygote dominated Allele frequency All fixed fro a single allele by F15 Heterozygosity Average lost by F4 Heterozygosity is lost under assortative mating. This is because heterozygotes are at a reproductive disadvantage as homozygotes will mate with like genotypes. Heterozygotes will not be produced by these matings either. Q 3.2) Results Population size 2000 (stand size), 100% assortative mating: Genotype frequency all homozygous by F4 Allele f fixed by F14 Heterozygosity average lost by F4 Population size 2000, 50% assortative mating Genotype f all homozygous by F25 Allele f all fixed by F29 Heterozygosity average lost by F25 Population size 250, 100% assortative mating Genotype f all homozygous by F4 Allele f all fixed by F12 Heterozygosity lost at F4 Population size 250, 50% assortative mating Genotype f all homozygous by F25 Allele f all fixed by F28 Heterozygosity lost at F25 Assortative mating dominates control of allele frequencies and the speed that alleles become fixed within a population compared with the effects of genetic drift (because the homozygotes are all mating with the same genotype and not with heterozygotes). Assortative mating is not dependant on carrying capacity. The size of the population is irrelevant when assortative mating is occurring. The results are similar for a high or a low population size. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Q 3.3) Method We conducted a series of experiments using disassortative mating and selected different levels of mating between 0% (random mating) and 100% (only unlike phenotypes mate). We then changed the population size from 2000 to 250 to see the effects of disassortative mating on genetic drift. Results Dissasortative mating shows that AA and aa will mate which increases heterozygosity and stabilises the population as shown in the results below: Population size 2000, 100% disassortative mating Geno (genotype frequency) heterozygote is predominant Allele (allele frequency) none become fixed. There is variation but it stays within 31% 68% variation Hetero (heterozygosity) increases in the first generation then remains constant Pop size 2000, 50% disassortative mating Geno predominantly heterozygote Allele none become fixed. There is less variation than with 100% disassortative mating. Variation is between 43% and 57% Hetero Increases in 1st generation and remains constant Pop size 250, 100% disassortative mating Geno -slight heterozygote increase Allele No fixed alleles. There is much greater variation than seen previously with a larger population size, between 21% and 79% Hetero increases in 1st generation then remains steady and begins to decrease. Remains above the initial percentage Pop size 250, 50% disassortative mating Geno heterozygosity increases steadily Allele No fixed alleles. Variation is less than with 100% disassortative mating and population size of 250. Variation levels out between 33% and 67% Hetero increases in the 1st generation and remains constant with a few small fluctuations which level back out Q 3.4) There would be more heterozygosity in the next generation when disassortative mating occurs and if this kind of mating is maintained, the effects of genetic drift occur much slower because the populations are prevented from diverging. Fig. 10 shows the comparison between disassortative mating and random mating where random mating allows genetic drift. Drift can still occur during dissasortative mating when the carrying capacity is very low. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Figure 10. (picture on left): Random mating, pop size 250 showing genetic drift acting to diverge allele frequencies. (picture on right): 50% dissassortative mating, population size 250 shows that dissasortative mating acts to counter genetic drift. Q 3.5) Method For this experiment we varied the initial genotype frequency for assortative and disassortative mating. We tried experiments where the initial allele frequency favoured one or the other allele. Fig. 11 show starting frequencies of 50/50% assortative mating. A small deviation in starting frequencies affects the final fixation percentages (Fig. 11). We did not include the brown allele in this experiment as the extra variable is not needed. Figure 11) Shows starting frequencies of 50/50% (50%-white allele, 50% black allele) with assortative mating = 100%. Small deviation in starting freq effects final fixation percentages. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Results Under dissassortative mating the time taken for equilibrium to establish is negatively correlated with the degree of deviation from a 1:1 starting allele ratio. Under assortative mating, fixation or loss of alleles is negatively correlated with the degree of deviation from a 1:1 starting allele ratio. Assignment 4: Modes of Natural Selection Q 4.1) Method In this experiment we investigated how fitness affects changes in allele frequency in the population. We began with default parameters except tree stand number (set at 100) and genotype frequencies. We changed the tree frequency to set up several experiments under conditions of directional selection for dark moths, directional selection for light moths, balancing selection favouring the brown moth, and diversifying selection favouring the dark and light moths. We tried experiments with the different conditions of selection and initial allele frequencies near zero and one. Results Directional selection for black moths where they tree frequencies are 50% black, 25% white and 25% brown trees gave the following results: Allele frequency becomes fixed rapidly by F10 (on average by F9) Genotype frequencies at F10 genotype becomes fixed for black allele In a small population, alleles become fixed more quickly but in larger populations allele frequencies are not affected as much. We kept the population size high so we would not see genetic drift in the experiment (4000 carrying capacity) with tree frequencies of 35%, 32% and 33%. Even the small amount of selection (35% black trees) shows fixation of alleles for the black morph of moth (Fig. 12). Selection for light moths gives the same results as selection for black moths. Figure 12. shows allele becoming fixed rapidly, due to a tiny increase in black trees on left, white trees on right (35 %) Catherine Carrick 200884273 Q 4.2) Starting figures are as follows: Black tree 25% Allele black 25% Brown tree 50% Allele brown 50% White tree 25% Allele white 25% After one generation, allele frequency remains stable (between 48% and 52%) and the genotype frequency becomes predominantly brown. This is because there is always the presence of black and white genotypes which cause slight variation. If you change the selection of trees to black 10%, white 10%, brown 80%, almost identical results occur (between 49% and 51% variation in allele frequency = stabilized). Q 4.3) To show diversifying selection we set the tree types to 45% black, 45% white and 10% brown. Genotype frequency by the 1st generation, there was a large decrease in brown morphs of moth and the equivalent increase in black and white morphs. This continues till F5 when the black morph became slightly more dominant (on average) due to random mating. The brown morph was phased out by F18 (on average) on most of the 100 tree stands. All alleles become fixed for either black or white by F23 (49% white, 51% black) (Fig 13). Figure 13. Shows 50% black and 50% white showing a 1:1 ratio Q 4.4) Small differences in fitness are effective in changing allele frequencies. Small differences in fitness have proportionally slower rates of allele frequency change compared with large differences in fitness. We conducted additional experiments with varying proportions of tree types. The results are as follows: (Where stand size = 4000, number of stands = 100, allele frequencies = white 20%, brown 60%, black 20%, tree frequencies = white 32%, brown 32%, black 36%). Even though there are a lower proportion of black alleles (A) to begin with, those alleles will have a higher fitness than white or brown as there is a higher percentage of black tree types. Over time this will equate to an increase in black morphs. There is, however, a Catherine Carrick 200884273 point where even if the black allele is fittest but there isnt a high enough population in the first place, it will crash and not recover. Q 4.5) Genetic variation is maintained under balancing selection because the allele frequencies remain stable. There is no fixation (presuming the all mating is random). The heterozygote allele is favoured and thus balances the homozygous allele. Assignment 5: Migration Q 5.1) Migration counteracts the effects of genetic drift. (Fig 14 and 15) Figure 14. Stand size of 500 and no migration shows heterozygosity varying over all populations. Green line = average heterozygosity over all populations. Figure 15. Shows stand size 500, and 8% migration. Shows migration maintains heterozygosity and there is less deviation from the average (green line) Catherine Carrick 200884273 Assignment 6: Population Bottlenecks Q 6.1) Disaster led to the loss of alleles and reduced heterozygosity. The more disasters there where, the more decreased the diversity became. (Fig 16, 17, 18) Figure 16. Control condition Shows low drift conferred by high population sizes (4000), all other variables adjusted to give Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Figure 17. Disaster parameters set to sometimes as opposed to never. Individual populations prone to fixation and loss of alleles. Catherine Carrick 200884273 Figure 18. Disaster frequency set to often rather than sometimes. Loss of diversity occurs faster than in figure 13 with most populations losing one or the other allele by generation 80. Q 6.2) Disaster increased the rate of extinction. The more regular the disaster, the more extinctions. Q 6.3) Migration moderated the effect that disasters had on the population. Discussion The results of our experiments clearly show that genetic drift effects smaller populations where heterozygoisity is lost rapidly and as the carrying capacity decreases, the risk of extinction increases. The is because the proportion of individuals with a certain phenotype within a small population are largely influenced by random variation in survival, and over time, the change in proportion of genotypes in subsequent generations leads to genetic drift. If one was to aim to conserve a hypothetical species, one would expect that because it is endangered, it would be a small population. To maintain genetic diversity among this species, one would need a large enough breeding population to begin with. Unfortunately, as is the case with most endangered species, populations become geographically isolated, mainly due to human disruption of habitat. Migration between breeding populations decreases and they become fragmented. Conservation efforts may be due to natural disasters such as tsunam is, fires etc, but are mainly to prevent the constant onslaught of human activities such as illegal logging in conservation areas. Figure 17 illustrates the effects of a bottleneck following a disaster, showing reduced variability (and a small population) leading to loss and/or fixation of alleles. As with genetic drift, the way to prevent population crashes, or rather soften the effects of bottlenecks, is to encourage migration among populations. This can be achieved by implementing the protection of corridors between known endangered populations. In theory, the populations can migrate between areas, maintaining a high enough level of breeding and genetic variation, to counter the effects of inbreeding depression or genetic drift (Fig 14 and 15). An example of how corridors may re-connect fragmented populations can be seen in Bhutans Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park (www.panthera.org). Catherine Carrick 200884273 Figure 19. Map of known tiger populations (red) and proposed tiger corridors (orange). Data taken from www.panthera.org The proposed Eastern Himalayan corridor may help towards connecting isolated populations of tigers, and thus increasing genetic diversity (if these populations successfully reproduce with one another) (Fig 19). Random mating, as apposed to assortative mating, will increase heterozygosity and stabilise a population (Fig 10). This acts against genetic drift and stops the population form diverging as quickly. In a hypothetical situation then, you would preferably allow mating to occur naturally and at random. However, some conservation efforts include that of translocation of individuals or cross breeding certain individuals from separate populations. For this to be advantageous to the species, one must consider maintaining genetic diversity by genotyping the individuals before translocation. It would be senseless to swap or breed an AA individual with another AA individual from a separate population as this would lead to loss or fixation and not increase diversity. Our studies with B. betularia in question 4 to 4.5 show that intermediates are favoured over extreme phenotypes and that genetic variation is maintained under balancing (stabilizing) selection because the allele frequencies remain stable. There is no fixation (presuming the all mating is random). The heterozygote allele is favoured and thus balances the homozygous allele. As well as considering the genetic diversity of a species and its genealogy, one must understand the species by means of observations in the field including its behaviour. Later studies of B. betularia reinforced the need for such observations as it was found to rest high in the branches rather than on the trunks of trees as previously calculated. Also, modern science allowed for the study of its UV qualities which had otherwise been unaccounted for when considering levels of predation by birds. A close study of mating patterns should ideally be assessed to ensure the outcome of migration; corridors, translocation etc will be advantageous in terms of fitness. Catherine Carrick 200884273

The Godless Constitution Essay -- essays research papers

The Godless Constitution   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When some people here the words â€Å"the godless constitution† uttered the shrill up their noses and get very defensive. Kramnick and Moore address this idea of the United States Constitution being godless. They speak about how America has misinterpreted views and how society would benefit from an understanding of what the Constitution stands for and how to correctly use it. They strive to help America understand that politics driven by religion and faith would do the most damage to the political agenda. They also emphasize that America created the Constitution was created to make a person’s religious standing irrelevant to hold office or voice a political opinion. They cover many topics addressed by the American public when trying to decide on the placement of God in our Constitution. They are writing to help Americans gain a greater understanding of what our forefather’s intended when writing the Constitution.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To understand why these two men are writing about The Godless Constitution, an approach on what they believe are America’s views is needed. In the first paragraph of the first chapter they state that they believe America argues over foolish things. They have come to the conclusion that Americans misinterpret the intentions of the constitution in providing a government for the people of the United States. They ask the question, â€Å"Is America a Christian Nation?†. They do not condemn religion of any sort but merely state that one God is not in the constitution. One main focus is on the founders of the document. A major point made is that even though most of the founders were Christian and lived by Christian principles, the envision was of a godless government. Their reasoning behind this idea was not of irreverence but confidence in religion too serve civil morality without intruding into politics. They believe in letting humans exercise their free will to believe in a God or to reject the idea without their decision affecting their role in government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  They refer to the one time God is mentioned in the constitution, Article 6. This merely states that â€Å"no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States†. This one statement is used to declare that America stands as a unity and full... ...ted States to gather knowledge on how to regard religion in our government. They give a timeless solution to an understanding of what our government is trying to establish. They propose the conception of America using this awareness of which the object was designed instead of seeing one-sided views to our nation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As citizens in a democratic government an understanding of the reasons laws were created help gain knowledge about how society is to proceed. This government protects people from politicians who stand for issues on religion. The Godless Constitution acknowledges the large population of Christians that created our Constitution. It does recognize they held the religious values strong while making the laws that govern our country. It also encourages the idea that they desired a godless government to protect the rights and freewill of mankind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Kramnick and Moore write not to solve problems of society, but to help the public gain awareness of our forefather’s intentions when creating our government. The Constitution is godless, and for good reasons. It is up to the individual to decide whether or not our nation is.

Hypertext and Literary Study Essays -- Literature Education English Te

Hypertext and Literary Study Hypertextual fiction (hyperfiction) and other hypertext applications are making their way into the literature courses where, Professor Larry Friedlander says, â€Å"learning has basically meant the study of texts,† in the form of the â€Å"printed word† (257). And these newer works, inseparable from their contemporary technologies, offer the possibility of a very different type of literary study than the one most English majors experience in traditional literature courses. Print and book technology perpetuate and validate linear experience, thought, and narratives, which buttresses a hierarchical educational structure that shapes the roles of writers, readers, teachers, and students. Challenging our trust in the order and logic of linear narratives, linear cause-and-effect thought processes, the authority of the individual author, and our common dependence on the stability of the printed text, hyperfiction requires the interaction of the reader to decide the story, i ncorporates multimedia elements, and promotes associative thought processes. Whereas the print tradition supports the power of the author over the text, the text over the reader, and the teacher over the student—as the interlocutor to the domain of literary discourse and study—hypertext fiction empowers student interpretations, even requires them, distributing authority among the author, reader, teacher, and student. To understand how print technology precipitates specific social consequences for the structure of literary study, we must consider the print tradition as part of a culture in which ideological and political choices have been made that effect learning and thinking. In other words, we must situate print in its social context, ... ...rt Moulthrop’s Hypertext Novel Victory Garden.† Contemporary Literature 41, No. 4 (Winter 2000): 642-60. Shakespeare, William. â€Å"Sonnets.† The Norton Anthology of English Literature, Vol. 1, 6 ed. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1993. Slatin, John. â€Å"Reading Hypertext: Order and Coherence in a New Medium.† Hypermedia and Literary Studies. Edited by George P. Landow and Paul Delaney. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1994. Swiss, Thomas. â€Å"Electronic Literature: Discourses, Communities, Traditions.† Memory Bytes: History, Technology, and Digital Culture. Edited by Lauren Rabinovitz and Abraham Geil. Durham: Duke UP, 2004. Vielstimmig, Myka. â€Å"Petals on a Wet Black Bough: Textuality, Collaboration, and the New Essay.† Passions, Pedagogies, and the 21st Century Technologies. Edited by Gail Hawisher and Cynthia Selfe. Logan: Utah State UP, 1999.

Suitors and Courtship in the Lower Middle Class in Victorian Times Essa

Eligible Bachelors: Suitors and Courtship in the Lower Middle Class Trying for social advancement, single men and women of the lower middle and upper working classes sought to assume the Victorian middle class rituals of courtship and engagement. Accordingly, this aim joined with the poor finances key to these classes to lead to the complicated struggle of the bachelor. A Suitable Suitor To be considered an appropriate suitor to a lower middle class woman, a man of similar station must address and fulfill several conditions. The importance of class, wealth, and status surfaced in that the â€Å"main requirement for a man was that he be a good provider† (Frost 82). Before attempting an engagement, a man â€Å"had to wait to inherit land or money with which to start a farm or small business† (Frost 62). Economically strained, couples â€Å"had to save carefully before setting up a household;† thus, the engagement period greatly exceeded the courting phase by two to eight more years among the lower middle class (Frost 62). Other factors, such as age, religious beliefs, and compatible temperamen...

The Effects Of Reciprocal Teaching On English Language Education Essay

This reappraisal of the literature is separated into subdivisions get downing with mutual instruction and the current research. The surveies for mutual instruction are reviewed harmonizing to their research design ( e.g. , meta-analysis, group designs, qualitative designs, and single-subject designs ) . Part of this subdivision includes a reappraisal of the mutual instruction monitoring scheme as it relates to current surveies. Subsequently there is a sum-up of the unwritten linguistic communication development in English Language Learners ( ELLs ) . With a turning figure of immigrants from assorted states, Miami Dade County Public Schools ( M-DCPS ) is a runing pot of ELLs. M-DCPS is besides the second-largest minority public school territory in the state. These pupils are expected to execute at the same degrees as their equals on the Standardized Achievement Test, Tenth Edition ( SAT-10 ) regardless of their appreciation of the English linguistic communication. With the current move into answerability and pupil accomplishment, instructors are obliged to happen schemes to help the ELLs in increasing non merely vocabulary, but besides reading comprehension. ELL pupils need to understand the reading strategies non merely to go through the SAT-10 and progress to the following class degree but besides to construe text in the existent universe. In order for pupils to efficaciously utilize the reading schemes, they must be actively engaged in the activities that are represented to them. The instructor must supply a huge sum of chances across all capable affair and convey in illustration from their day-to-day lives every bit good. If the pupil continues to pull strings the assorted passages/text, so their comprehension accomplishments will increase and in bend will accomplish higher tonss in the SAT-10.Reciprocal TeachingResearch workers in a figure of surveies have systematically found that mutual instruction is an effectual manner to increase pupil comprehension. Relatively small is known about the issues of how multiple schemes can, and should, be combined in comprehension direction ( Brunstein & A ; Kieschke, Sporer 2009 ) . Reciprocal in struction ( RT ) is an instructional process developed by Palincsar and Brown ( 1984 ) to better pupils ‘ text comprehension accomplishments through scaffold direction of four comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring schemes ( Palincsar & A ; Brown, 1984 ; Palincsar, David, & A ; Brown, 1989 ; Rosenshine & A ; Meister, 1994 ) , that is, ( a ) bring forthing one ‘s ain inquiries, ( B ) sum uping parts of the text, ( degree Celsius ) clear uping word significances and confounding text transitions, and ( vitamin D ) foretelling what might come next in the text ( Brunstein & A ; Kieschke, Sporer 2009 ) . The instructor could so supply counsel and feedback at the appropriate degree for each pupil. Theories of comprehension suggests that active acquisition from text must affect a flexible repertory of comprehension-fostering and monitoring activities ( Alfassi, 1998 ) . Explicit direction in comprehension-enhancing activities appears particularly important for the novice reader and the academically delayed pupil ( Alfassi, 1998 ) .Meta-AnalysisIn order to look into the effectivity of mutual learning two meta-analyses have been conducted. Meister and Rosenshine ( 1994 ) provided the first analysis of the survey. After placing 16 published and unpolished surveies related to mutual instruction, they concluded that teacher-made appraisals had a greater consequence on reading comprehension instead than standardised trial. In general, Meister and Rosenshine and ( 1994 ) found that when the four schemes ( i.e. , oppugning, sum uping, clear uping, and foretelling ) were explicitly taught before prosecuting in the mutual instruction processs pupils ‘ comprehension abilities increased more than when the schemes were taught as the mutual instruction intercession was in procedure. In an unpublished thesis by Galloway ( 2003 ) , an extended reappraisal of the current literature on mutual instruction was conducted utilizing traditional meta-analysis. The research worker found moderate consequence sizes for intercessions utilizing mutual instruction. The important differences between teacher-made trials and norm-referenced trials found by Meister and Rosenshine ( 1994 ) were non found by Galloway ( 2003 ) . Galloway concluded there still is a demand to document in the literature the execution of the mutual instruction process. Both of the meta-analytic surveies described provide support for the effectivity of mutual instruction. Sample size and the fidelity to which the mutual instruction intercession was implemented remain a restriction.Group DesignsLysynchuk, Pressly, and Vye ( 1990 ) studied how mutual instruction improves the reading comprehension public presentation of hapless readers. In this survey, 72 four and rate seven pupils in Canada participated in 1 3 Sessionss of mutual learning reading intercession reading direction. Of the 72 pupils, 36 were assigned to the mutual instruction intercession, while the others worked in little groups, with the instructor offering aid if needed in decrypting and transition apprehension. Thirteen Sessionss were administered to both groups, with day-to-day dependent steps being taken ( i.e. , reciting and inquiries ) , every bit good as pre and station standardised reading steps. For both informal and formal appraisals, the reading comprehension of the experimental group of hapless decipherers was higher than the control group of hapless decipherers. No betterments were seen on vocabulary acquisition and care in either group. Klinger and Vaughn ( 1996 ) used mutual instruction as an intercession for hapless decipherers with larning disablements ( LD ) , but who were besides ELL at the in-between school degree. This survey concluded that mutual learning intercession appeared to better the reading comprehension of pupils with LD/ELL and supported mold and societal interaction as agencies to larning as proposed by Vygotsky ( Schunk, 2004 ) .Qualitative DesignsThe usage of qualitative research methods lend themselves good in the probe of jobs where engagement, observation, and enquiry of intending are of involvement ( Shank, 2006 ) . In a survey conducted by Hacker and Tenent ( 2002 ) instructors constructed their cognition of mutual instruction ( based on Hashey & A ; Jimmy conorss, 2003 ) as they implemented the intercession. The survey lasted 3 old ages and 17 instructors from two simple schools were followed. Data was collected based on patterns and alterations of mutual instruction in order for them to d evelop a theory on how to implement the intercession efficaciously in the schoolroom. The three elements of mutual instruction that were examined: scheme usage, profusion of duologue, and scaffold direction. The chief issue the instructors encountered with the pupils was in duologue in which they felt it was superficial and non rich ; this determination was besides supported by Whitehead ‘s ( 2002 ) probe of guided reading intercession. Hashey and Connors ( 2003 ) besides suggest that pupils benefit from mutual learning beginning in the 3rd class because of their experience with decrypting accomplishments.Single-Subject DesignsPalincsar, David, and Brown ( 1989 ) have suggested that mutual instruction may be more good as a little group intercession. In the initial mutual instruction survey, Palincsar and Brown ( 1984 ) employed a individual capable research design to look into the effects of mutual instruction with a little group of pupils. To day of the month several research workers have utilized individual capable designs to mensurate the effects of mutual learning with little groups of pupils in applied scenes.The Reading ProcedureCrowder and Wagner ( 1992 ) suggest reading may be a â€Å" fuzzed construct † ( p. 3 ) to understand ; it is a complex procedure ( Sternberg, 2003 ) , A simpler position of the reading procedure was explained by Hoover and Gough ( 1990 ) . The research workers suggested that the reading procedure consisted of two constituents: decryption and comprehension. To them, decrypting encompasses phonemic consciousness, phonics, and reading eloquence, while comprehension and vocabulary are thought of as one constituent. The simple construct of decrypting and comprehension was elaborated on by LaBerge and Samuels ( 1974 ) . From the position of cognitive psychological science, they proposed a theory of automaticity, which explained decrypting as a combination of reading velocity and truth. This eloquence in decrypting allows for cognitive resources to treat information expeditiously make intending from text ( Hashey & A ; Jimmy conorss, 2003 ) . Therefore, fluid readers have the ability and attending to grok what they read. Conversely, hapless decipherers, who lack eloquence, will utilize their available cognitive resources to decrypt alternatively of utilizing those resources to grok text to the full ( LaBerge & A ; Samuels, 1974 ) ; this deficiency of eloquence outputs superficial comprehension and spreads in apprehension.English Language LearnersThere is limited research conducted on the unwritten linguistic communication development in English Language Learners ( ELLs ) , such as vocabulary, grammatical signifier, and matter-of-fact forms. Therefore, restricting the apprehension of specific facets of ELLs unwritten linguistic communication development and, therefore small empirical footing for be aftering educational intercessions ( Genesse, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders & A ; Christian, 2006 ) . Latino pupils as a whole, including English proficient kids in the 2nd coevals and beyond, score significantly lower in reading than other pupils. However, the chance of geting an unknown word by the way through reading is merely approximately 15 % ( Swanborn & A ; de Glopper, 1999 ) . These pupils frequently exhibit more jobs with reading comprehension than make fluid talkers of English of comparable ability, because of differences in background cognition relevant to what is read in school and limited English linguistic communication proficiency ( Klingner & A ; Vaughn, 1996 ) . There are besides assorted positions on the benefits of mutual instruction. Many surveies suggests that ELLs can profit from mutual instruction because of improve comprehension for pupils who can decrypt but have trouble groking text ( Klingner & A ; Vaughn, 1996 ) and others recommend that vocabulary direction should take topographic point in order to increase pupil comprehension ( Genesse, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders & A ; Christian, 2006 ) . Prior mutual instruction research has examined the effects of teacher-facilitated scheme direction without analyzing how pupils apply schemes when the instructor is non present ( Klingner & A ; Vaughn, 1996 ) . This survey conducted by Klingner and Vaughn ( 1996 ) proved that that initial reading ability and unwritten linguistic communication proficiency seemed related to additions in comprehension, that a greater scope of pupils benefited from scheme direction than would hold been predicted on the footing of old research, and that pupils in both groups continued to demo betterment in comprehension when provided minimum grownup support. For those grounds, it is critical to understand the relationship of mutual instruction among ELLs. This will let instructors to outdo find the most effectual reading scheme to accomplish acquisition additions in reading comprehension. These patterns include expressed direction in nucleus reading competences after control for undertaking trouble through systematic staging, learning pupils separately or in little groups, patterning and learning schemes, learning when and where to use schemes, ongoing and systematic feedback, and ongoing advancement monitoring ( Miester & A ; Rosenshine, 1994 ) .

How to Write a 5 Paragraph Essay

1 I. How to Recognize Plagiarism1 Overview In order to avoid plagiarism, you must give credit when You use another person's ideas, opinions, or theories. You use facts, statistics, graphics, drawings, music, etc. , or any other type of information that does not comprise common knowledge. You use quotations from another person's spoken or written word. You paraphrase another person's spoken or written word. 1 Begin the writing process by stating your ideas; then go back to the author's origina l work. Use quotation marks and credit the source (author) when you copy exact wording.Use your own words (paraphrase) instead of copying directly when possible. Even when you paraphrase another author's writings, you must give credit to that author. If the form of citation and reference are not correct, the attribution to the original author is likely to be incomplete. Therefore, improper use of style can result in plagiarism. Get a style manual and use it. 2 II. Formula for an Essay Basically, the writing expected of students in college is of one type that can be used for all disciplines. This handout generally focuses on the basic, â€Å"formulaic† nature of the college level essay and its components.THIS IS THE PROCESS & ITS PRODUCTS: 1. BRAINSTORM: Write down whatever comes to mind about the topic. 2. A. A. : AUDIENCE ATTRACTOR: This is the first sentence of the opening paragraph which catches the reader's attention, an attentiongetting sentence. 3. BACKGROUND SENTENCES: These are the sentences that provide background information about the subject and act to narrow the focus, thereby introducing the thesis. 4. THESIS: This is the sentence that expresses the main idea of the paper. **A thesis may change as the essay matures. ** 5. PROOF SENTENCES (2-3 sentences): Proof sentences support and prove the validity of the thesis. It helps to use a proof sentence as the opening sentence in each body paragraph. In each paragraph, a minimum of four sentences should be wr itten supporting the topic sentence. ) EXAMPLE: SAMPLE TOPIC: The value of a college education. BRAINSTORMING: better job enrichment more pay wider outlook AUDIENCE ATTRACTOR: higher self-esteem People all over the world yearn for an education. 3 BACKGROUND: 1. In the past, many individuals did not have access to an education. 2. History reveals many were forced to perform low-income, manual labor while others reaped the benefits of life. THESIS:Today, a person needs a college education in order to be financially successful in a technologically advanced world. PROOF/SUPPORT SENTENCES: The writer may compose 2-3 proof sentences depending on whether the essay is to be 4 or 5 paragraphs. The model used here includes 2 proof sentences for a 4 paragraph essay. 1. Education is a prerequisite for certain high-paying jobs. 2. In addition, advanced technology, like computers, makes college level training essential. NOTE: Thesis and proof/support sentences can be combined into a single thesis statement which advances the main idea and sketches the arrangement of the roof/support of that thesis. EXAMPLE: Today, a person needs a college education even to start certain high-paying jobs and to be able to use advanced technology in the workplace. OPENING PARAGRAPH: A. A. : People all over the world yearn for an education. BACKGROUND: In the past, many individuals did not have access to an education. History reveals many were forced to perform low-income, manual labor while others reaped the benefits of life. THESIS: Today, a person needs a college education in order to be financially successful in a technologically advanced world.PROOF (SUPPORT) SENTENCES: Education is a prerequisite for certain high-paying jobs. In addition, advanced technology, like computers, makes college level training essential. **PROOF SENTENCES CAN BE PLACED BEFORE OR AFTER THE THESIS. ** 4 FIRST BODY PARAGRAPH: FIRST PROOF SENTENCE REWRITTEN: The pay scale for certain jobs is based on how much educa tion the employee has. (Now, add four or more sentences to support this idea. ) SECOND BODY PARAGRAPH: SECOND PROOF SENTENCE REWRITTEN: Because of computers, sophisticated communications systems, and other technological advances, a general education may not be enough for some of today's jobs. Again, add four or more sentences to support this idea. ) CONCLUSION: The conclusion can be the thesis rewritten and the proof sentences rewritten. Stating one's opinion adds a personal touch. In the conclusion one should never introduce new material. A conclusion usually summarizes or re-emphasizes what has already been discussed in the paper. 5 III. Writing the Five Paragraph Essay INTRODUCTION Motivator, an attention grabbing sentence: Children have many things to learn and to adjust to as they grow up including the awareness of the parts of their bodies. Thesis (Main Idea):Children often do humorous things. Blueprint: They are often humorous in learning to speak, in discovering that all obj ects do not have human characteristics, and in attempting to imitate others. Often, the thesis and blueprint can be combined into a single thesis sentence which advances a main idea and sketches the arrangement of the details which support that main idea (thesis). BODY (SUPPORT & DEVELOPMENT) FIRST CENTRAL PARAGRAPH Topic Sentence: Specific Support: Children are often humorous in learning to speak. My daughter Betsy, mistook â€Å"old tomato† for â€Å"ultimatum. † SECOND CENTRAL PARAGRAPHTopic Sentence: Specific Support: Specific Support: Specific Support: Children â€Å"humanize† the objects around them. A psychologist says children blame balls and chairs as though the things were conscious. When I was a child, I thought the sun was out to get me. Betsy ordered her shoes to climb the stairs. THIRD CENTRAL PARAGRAPH Topic Sentence: Specific Support: Specific Support: Children attempt to imitate what they see. They dress like their parents. My daughter imitated a tantrum a visiting child threw. CONCLUSION Reworded Thesis: Clincher Children are funny creatures to watch. A reminder of the motivator which states that children have a lot of learning and adjusting to do. ) 6 IV. Writing the One Paragraph Essay A PARAGRAPH is a group of sentences that are combined to make a point. Sentences must be tied together in a relationship that gives meaning to the whole. Every ONE-PARAGRAPH ESSAY must contain three main parts: –main idea (topic sentence) –support for the main idea –closing that feels like an ending MAIN IDEA can be proved is worth discussing A MAIN IDEA must have a topic and offer an opinion about the topic. It must be provable, maybe in more than one way.It must be something worth discussing. TOPIC My first grade teacher OPINION influenced my career choice. A sentence that states only a subject, or topic, cannot be a main idea. WITHOUT AN OPINIONATED STATEMENT, there is nothing to PROVE OR ARGUE, nothing worth discu ssing. NOT A MAIN IDEA My first grade teacher was old. A MAIN IDEA without a TOPIC and an OPINION makes a poor foundation for an ESSAY. 7 A NOTE ON PERSONAL AND IMPERSONAL WRITING Some main ideas and some essays are about people and events in our own lives. They are derived from the writer's personal experiences.The writer is prominently featured in this kind of writing. PERSONAL MAIN IDEA-â€Å"My first grade teacher influenced my career choice. † Other MAIN IDEAS do not deal directly with the writer. They are about people, things, and ideas that the writer is thinking about, but they have not necessarily been experienced by the writer personally. IMPERSONAL MAIN IDEA -â€Å"Cold weather was the cause of the Challenger disaster. † SUPPORTING THE MAIN IDEA The main idea states what the writer believes to be true. Once the writer has stated a main idea, he or she must prove that the main idea is plausible. This is done with SUPPORTING IDEAS.Without supporting ideas, the re is no paragraph; there is only a statement of the writer's view or merely his or her opinion. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE can be of many types, including any or all of the following: physical descriptions stories (narrative) examples comparisons discussion or analysis of cause and effect discussion or analysis of a process definitions division of a group into smaller ones statistical evidence quotations from authorities logical and reasonable arguments THE CLOSING OR CONCLUSION Every one-paragraph essay has an effective closing, something that makes the reader feel that the writer is finished.It might be one of the following: –a summary or restatement of the main idea –a conclusion that can be drawn from the proof stated –the repetition of a key phrase from the beginning of the work –a particularly effective supporting detail that feels like an ending 8 V. Writing a Good Three Point Thesis A thesis is: 1. The basic stand you take. 2. Your opinion on a subject. 3. The point you make. 4. The controlling idea. 5. The directing statement of your paper. PERSUADE THE READER THAT YOUR THESIS IS VALID. GENERAL SUBJECT: Education LIMITED SUBJECT: Professor XTHESIS STATEMENT: Professor X is an incompetent teacher. (Your purpose is to back up the statement, to persuade the reader). A THESIS IS NOT A TITLE. OR AN ANNOUNCEMENT. TITLE: The Fad of Divorce THESIS STATEMENT: Too many people get divorced for trivial reasons. ANNOUNCEMENT: My subject is the incompetence of Professor X. THESIS STATEMENT: Professor X is an incompetent teacher. A THESIS IS NOT A STATEMENT OF ABSOLUTE FACT. A good thesis is restricted. A thesis limits or restricts your subject. A thesis keeps the paper from wandering over too great a territory.The more restricted the thesis, the better the chances are for supporting it fully. A GOOD THESIS IS UNIFIED. It expresses ONE MAJOR IDEA about its subject. A good thesis may sometimes include a secondary idea if it is strictly subordina ted to the major one, but without that subordination the writer will have too many ideas to handle. A GOOD THESIS IS SPECIFIC. A GOOD THREE POINT THESIS STATEMENT: Professor X is an incompetent teacher because he grades unfairly, gives tests on materials not covered in his courses, and enjoys threatening students with failing grades. 9 VI. Writing a Good Conclusion ? ? ? ? The conclusion brings the essay to completion and gives the reader a sense of closure. The conclusion is memorable – the writer saves something interesting for the end. The conclusion reminds readers of the thesis or restates it in different words. The conclusion provides a brief but well-worded analysis of the point of the paper. The conclusion ends with a distinctive sentence: it may be a short sentence; it may be an especially well-worded or thoughtful sentence; it may be an image that stays with the readers. Concluding Strategies: End by reflecting on the importance or implications of your thesis.End wi th a call to action. James Baldwin calls for an end to the injustices of racism in his conclusion to Notes of a Native Son: â€Å"One must never, in one's own life, accept these injustices as commonplace but must fight them with all one's strength. † (102) End with a hook. Refer back to an idea, image, or question with which you began your essay. This gives your readers a satisfying sense of closure like a circle coming round. If, for example, you start an essay with a brief story about your mother’s kindness, you can refer back to her kindness in your conclusion.Brian Courtney uses a hook from his title â€Å"Freedom from Choice† when he uses the word â€Å"choose† twice in his conclusion. End with a vivid image or picture that reinforces your thesis and helps readers feel what you mean. End with a quotation that reinforces your thesis in a memorable way. End with a question that leaves readers pondering the significance of your essay. In her essay †Å"Television and Free Time,† Marie Winn argues that television programs what a child experiences. Her last sentence is, â€Å"When, then, is he going to live his real life? † (Winn 155) End by offering a solution to a problem your essay concerns.End by striking a note of reasonable hope that a problem or an issue will get better. End with a prediction that logically follows from your thesis and evidence. 10 Conclusions to Avoid: ? ? Avoid the one-sentence or very short conclusion. Like the one-sentence introduction, the one-sentence conclusion suggests there may be something wrong with the structure of your paper. The conclusion has a real purpose. It is the place where you should evaluate your evidence. In your conclusion you should tell your reader what the evidence means-what insights you draw from your paper.Avoid merely summarizing your paper or restating your thesis. The summary ending is a cliche that is so overused it seems amateurish. Avoid using an overused ph rase, such as â€Å"In conclusion† or â€Å"To sum up. † Try to be original. Avoid drawing attention to yourself instead of drawing attention to your point: â€Å"Now that I have reached the end of this time-consuming paper†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Avoid raising any new or irrelevant subjects in the conclusion. By using effective titles, introductions, and conclusions, you will engage your audience more fully-you will help them pay attention to your thesis and supporting evidence.